1. History of the creation of the antiquities collection

Constantinopolis dedicator paene omnium urbium nuditate (=Constantinople is inaugurated by the despoilment of almost all cities).

From the moment of its foundation in the 4^th cent. by Constantine the Great until its sack by the Crusaders in 1204, Constantinople featured a unique collection of ancient sculptures unrivalled by anything to be seen in any other Medieval city. This collection, the result of a conscious effort by the emperor and his advisors, consisted mainly of works of art predating the 4^th cent., which had been transported to the new capital from cities and sanctuaries throughout the Roman Empire. Constantine’s effort was continued by his successors until the 6^th cent., when Justinian put an end to this practice. By then, hundreds of ancient monuments had been used to adorn the capital. In April of 1204 the troops of the 4^th Crusade, having captured the city, pillaged it. They destroyed a large number of its sculptures, while others were carried off to the West. What was left was totally destroyed in May of 1453, when the city fell into Ottoman hands and was once again despoiled.

These works were installed in the city’s most important public buildings, arranged in groups-smaller collections. The aim was to create a conspicuous connection between the newly founded capital and Roman splendour thus reaffirming the civic vision of the emperor-founder of the city.

The creation of the collection can be divided into three periods: the first and most systematic was the period of its constitution, i.e. between 324 and 330. A second one, less intensive, started in 379 during the reign of Theodosius the Great, lasting until 420 (under Theodosius II). During this period there is decreased activity (less works are being transported compared to the previous), while most of these are added to existing buildings. The last chapter in the creation of this collection is written in the 6^th cent. during the reign of Justinian. In this period works are being transported away from ruined areas, and new works of art are added only in two places in the city.

2. First period (324-330)

Among the best documented collections of this period are those in the Thermae of Zeuxippus, the Hippodrome and Constantine's Forum. Less information is available on the Basilica and the Strategeion, while the collections in the Augustaeum and Constantine’s Thermae remain almost unknown.

2.1. Zeuxippus’ Thermae

This is the best documented group cited on an ekphrasisof the late 5^th cent. Egyptian poet Christodorus.¹ This building was erected during the reign of Septimius Severus, but was renovated in Constantine’s time and adorned by a series of marble and bronze sculptures.² Three categories of sculptures are mentioned: gods and demigods, mythological figures and portraits. The presence of the works is confirmed by archaeological finds. The Thermae contained eleven figures representing gods and demigods: three statues of Apollo and three of Aphrodite, one Hermaphroditus, a complex featuring Heracles and Auge, as well as a complex of Poseidon and Amymone. Figures from at least two more mythological cycles are mentioned, the Theban and the Trojan, as well as thirty-four statues representing personalities from pre-Homeric times to the 2^nd cent., among them poets, philosophers, historians, military commanders and statesmen. This collection was completely destroyed in 532 during the events of the Nika riots.

2.2. The Hippodrome

The Hippodrome was erected by Septimius Severus, but was systematically adorned by Constantine the Great. The works in this edifice can be divided into four categories: apotropaic symbols, victory monuments, celebrated persons and pictures of Rome. In the first category we have pagan deities, like Zeus Hippias,³ wild animals, like hyenas,⁴ and fictional beings, like Sphinxes.⁵ These figures functioned as talismans, averting evil. Among the victory monuments are those commemorating specific persons and events, such as a complex of bronze tripods taken from the Sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi,⁶ as well as those which refer to a specific event, like the complex of a donkey with its driver, originally installed at Nicopolis, which commemorated Marcus Antonius ’ victory at Actium,⁷ and the "Serpent Column" on which the tripod dedicated at Delphi after the Greek victory at Plataea (479 BC) rested.⁸ In the same category we have statues of gods and demigods (e.g. Castor and Pollux,⁹ Heracles and the Nemean Lion,¹⁰ Heracles and the Hesperids).¹¹ In the category of eminent personalities we have statues of Augustus and Diocletian,¹²Julius Cesar,¹³Alexander the Great,¹⁴ as well as of the Lesbian hero Theophanes.¹⁵ Works like the statue of the she-wolf with Romulus and Remus belong to the last category.¹⁶

2.3. Constantine’s Forum

The sources relate that Constantine’s Forum contained 33 monumental works of art. Among these was a column of porphyry on which a statue of Constantine stood,¹⁷ a Roman Palladium,¹⁸ a complex of Paris, Hera and Aphrodite,¹⁹ a statue of Athena,²⁰ one of Thetis²¹ and one depicting an elephant.²² There were also twelve figures representing Sirens or “gilded sea horses”.²³ Among the archaeological finds there is also a fragment²⁴of a dolphin sculpture and a head of Tiberius.

2.4. Smaller collections

Smaller collections existed also in the Strategeion, the Basilica, the Augustaeum and the Great Palace.We also know that a statue of Alexander had been set up in the Strategeion.²⁵ The Basilica was complemented during the reign of Constantine the Great by two naiskoi on either side: one of Rhea/Cybele, with her statue originating from the goddess’ sanctuary at Cyzicus, and one of goddess Tyche, containing statues of unknown provenance, most likely taken from Rome. Lysippus’ Heracles was also originally placed in the Basilica,²⁶ also transported from Rome.²⁷The information available on the collection at the Augustaeum is unfortunately very sparse. A paragraph in the work Patria (10^th cent.) mentions figures of emperors and state officials, statues of Aphrodite, Arcturus, Selene, the South Pole, Zeus, figures drawn from the Zodiac Cycle, as well as two figures called ‘Persian statues’. Most likely this was the sculptural rendering of a horoscope. We also know that the Great Palace was decorated with works like the complex of the Muses, taken from their sanctuary on Mt Helicon.²⁸

3. Second period (379-420)

The dynasty of Theodosius the Great showed keen interest in restoring and adorning existing buildings, as well as erecting new ones south of Constantine’s Forum. The most important concentration of ancient works of art during this period is reported in a private building, Lausus’ palace.

3.1. The Hippodrome

The Hippodrome’s collections were complemented by four important monuments: an obelisk,²⁹ a statue of Scylla,³⁰ a gilded quadriga (=chariot drawn by four horses) probably taken from Chios,³¹ and a statue of Heracles originally placed in the Basilica and then relocated by Theodosius in the Hippodrome.

3.2. Bouleuterion east of the Augustaeum

This is Constantinople’s second Bouleuterion. This building was burned down in 404, later rebuilt and burned down again in 532. It contained two very important works of art: a statue of Zeus from the sanctuary at Dodona of Epirus and one of Athena from the sanctuary of Lindus at Rhodes.³² These were accompanied by a series of statues depicting the Muses.³³

3.3. Smaller collections

Theodosius’ Forum, Arcadius’ Forum and the Golden Gate are among the new additions made by Theodosius’ dynasty. The first contained only two works of art, a statue of Hadrian³⁴ and a silver plated mounted statue of Theodosius I.³⁵ An Egyptian Sphinx, a statue of Artemis, a portrait of Septimius Severus and a tripod are mentioned for Arcadius' Forum.³⁶ The Golden Gate included a chariot drawn by elephants on which Theodosius rode accompanied by Nike and Tyche of Constantinople.³⁷

3.4. Lausus’ collection

In the early decades of the 5^th cent., the nobleman Lausus, a praepositus in the court of Theodosius the Great in c.420, created a collection of sculptures which included some of the most celebrated works of Greek Antiquity. The collection is today known through written sources: a chronicle of the late 11^th cent., known as Compendium Historiarum by Georgius Cedrenus (Ι.564 and Ι.616), and a 12^th cent. work entitled Epitome Historiarum by Joannes Zonaras (ΙΙΙ.131). Thirteen statues are mentioned: one of Athena from Lindus, a work of Scyllis and Dipoenus (6^th cent. BC), Hera of Samos, a work of the Chian sculptor Bupalus, the chryselephantine statue of Zeus from Olympia, a work of Pheidias (5^th cent. BC), the Aphrodite of Cnidus by Praxiteles (4^th cent. BC), Eros of Myndus and the personification of Kairos, works by Lysippus, as well as a series of sculptures depicting wild animals and semi-human figures, like Pans and Centaurs of Hellenistic or Roman provenance. Lausus’ collection is thought to have followed the appraisals of Pliny the Elder concerning ancient art and it reflects the interests and behaviours observable in Roman collectors of earlier times. It also attempts to gap the chasm between the earlier pagan tradition and the new Christian principles.³⁸

3.5. The Palace of Marina

The palace of the unwed daughter of Theodosius was built in c.420 and included a complex of baths, which is described in a 10^th cent. ekphrasis. It was decorated with mosaics, statues and a relief depiction of a Gigantomachy.³⁹

4. Third period (6th century)

During Justinian’s reign, many new buildings were erected in Constantinople. The violent Nika riots (532) had broken out earlier, leading to the destruction of many buildings with their collections. Notwithstanding the fact that the importance of ancient works of art had diminished perceptibly as compared to previous periods, their use was not altogether abandoned. It is mentioned that the open-air colonnade that was appended to the Thermae of Arcadius, which was decorated with marble and other luxurious materials, was carefully adorned with ancient sculptures.⁴⁰ We do not know the provenance of these works; they could have originated from destroyed areas, perhaps, however, they were imported to Constantinople for the very first time.⁴¹ The Bronze Gate, the main entrance to the Great Palace also received sculptural decoration. Eighth century accounts mention a complex of statues representing emperors (Maximinus, Theodosius and his dynasty, Zeno and Ariadne, Justin I), two statues depicting philosophers (most likely from Athens), a bronze state dubbed ‘Belisarius’ (of unknown provenance), as well as four Gorgoneia and two horses (from the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus).⁴²

These are the last systematic installations of antiquities in Constantinople. From then onwards, ancient works of art cease to be used as a means of ideological expression.

But what reasons were behind the drive to create these collections in Constantinople? The answer is not simple. The use of sculptures from earlier periods had very important advantages in terms of cost and time. The period between the foundation of Constantinople and its inauguration was rather short – an adequate force of skilled artisans was lacking and financially the situation was not very good. On the other hand, sculptures, ancient and contemporary, figured prominently in designing ancient cities. Their existence justified their civic character, which was rather obvious from the presence of numerous sculptures in the cities of Asia Minor like Ephesus, Miletus, Aphrodisias and so forth. Furthermore, sculptures acted as symbols of wealth and prestige (they were expensive to make, implied the presence of eminent art and civic patrons), but they were also seen as tokens of civic beauty. On the other hand, sculptures acted as an important means of visual communication in the Greco-Roman world. The selection of themes and the arrangement of the works aimed at creating a kind of a ‘dialogue’ between them, producing visual narratives and allowing cities to demonstrate their history, their ties to the past and thus their role in the present and future.

Furthermore, the reuse of sculptures has its roots in the military traditions of pillaging and seizing the works of art of the defeated by their vanquishers. Already by the time of the Republic, the riches of a conquered city were carried off to Rome, where they were presented to the crowds as a proof of military supremacy. Originally the spoils consisted exclusively of weaponry, precious metals, livestock and slaves, but works of art were gradually added. Apart from the obvious financial considerations, behind the preservation and reinforcement of this tradition there were also symbolic ones. The spolia affirmed the greatness of the vanquished nation and thus justified its subjugation, while at the same time acted as tangible proof of the opponent’s dishonour.