1. Location

Sagalassos is in southwestern Turkey, 7 kilometres to the north of the modern city of Aĝlasun in the province of Burdur, within about 110 km from the port of Attaleia. The ancient city was under the administration of Pisidia, the mountainous geographical region in western Taurus.¹ Apart from the imposing massifs, the lakes Burdur, Eğridir and Beyşehir² as well as the rivers Kestros, Melas and Eurymedon are distinctive features of the geomorphology of the area.

2. Strategic Importance and Natural Resources

Sagalassos was one of the most important cities of ancient Pisidia. In Antiquity the city developed rapidly mainly thanks to its mountainous position, which made it a natural stronghold, and its ample natural resources. It was built on a series of natural terraces facing south, at an altitude between 1490 and 1600 metres, on the southern sides of Aĝlasun Mountain. The imposing limestone massif of a range, extending until the inaccessible crests of Akdağ Mountain (2271 m), dominates to the north. The green fertile valleys enclosing today the outskirts of Aĝlasun opened up to the south. Access from north was almost impossible, while the road leading to the city from the south was also rough. Fortifications built in the Hellenistic years were additional defence, thus making Sagalassos almost unconquerable. The region was watered by rich sources,³ which not only covered the needs of the increased population of Sagalassos and its region, but also accumulated water reserves.⁴ The rare combination of the mountainous position and water sufficiency gave the city a clear advantage over the rest of Pisidian cities. The region of Sagalassos was significantly expanded and had rich limestone rock beds, mined intensively. Limestone was the raw material for the famous sarcophaguses manufactured in local workshops in the imperial years.⁵

In antiquity the city was surrounded by forests of cedars, pines and oaks.⁶ In addition, Sagalassos had intensively cultivated fertile land. One of the main agricultural products was corn, whose crops were so abundant that towards the late 2^nd century AD there were reserves supplying the Roman legions stationed in Syria.⁷ In the region of Sagalassos there was extensive stock breeding thanks to the vast areas of pasture near the southern coasts of Lake Burdur. Finally, a most important economic source was the famous red coated local pottery, whose exportable products were in great demand in the markets of both the north and the west.⁸

3. Historical Background

A paradox about archaeological research in Sagalassos is the lack of findings from the middle and late Copper Age.⁹ However, the existence of humans in Pisidia these periods is certain, as evidenced by Hittite sources.¹⁰ In classical years the region was inhabited by different peoples including Milyades, Pisidians and Solymoi, the second being the master people, notorious for their warlike character.

Sagalassos came into the spotlight as lately as 334 BC,¹¹ when it was conquered by Alexander the Great.¹² The inhabitants resisted strongly, supported by a small number of Telmessians, although they did not manage to repel the Macedonian troops.¹³ According to Arrian, who has handed down the events in detail, Sagalassos was a quite powerful city, inhabited by the most warlike people in the whole region.¹⁴ The resistance was mainly put up on the conical hill dominating the southern gate of the city, later reasonably named ‘Alexander’s Hill’.¹⁵ It is worth mentioning that much later the public opinion thought of Alexander’s victory as something positive, for a new period started then for them.¹⁶

After the Macedonian king died (323 BC), in the framework of the subsequent War of Successors, the city came briefly under Alcetas, the youngest brother of Perdiccas, Alexander’s general. The city was then governed by Antigonus I Monophthalmos (‘One-Eyed’ /320-301 BC) and Lysimachus (301-281 BC). In the 3^rd century BC Pisidia gradually became the bone of contention among the rest of the powers of the region. Thus, it probably came briefly under the control of Attalus I of Pergamon (c.228-223 BC), while between 218-216 BC the city was governed by Achaeus, the usurper of the Seleucid throne. After Achaeus was defeated and executed, it is possible that Antiochus III the Great managed to bring Pisidia again under Seleucid control from 216 until 193 BC.

The next time Sagalassos is mentioned in historical sources is associated with the first Roman military operations in Pisidian land. After Antiochus III the Great was defeated by the Romans in the battle of Magnesia (190 BC), the treaty of Apamea (188 BC) granted Pisidia to Pergamon. The following year the inhabitants of Sagalassos painfully experienced for the first time the consequences of Roman military action in the framework of a large-scale military operation by the Roman consul Lucius Manlius Vulso in Asia Minor, who aimed to consolidate Roman control in Galatia. As Roman soldiers were free to loot the territories they crossed, the cost for the inhabitants was particularly heavy. The rich land of Sagalassos was so much plundered that the city authorities bribed the Romans with large sums of money in order to get rid of them.¹⁷

The predatory attacks of Vulso against Sagalassos clearly prove the prosperity of the city in Hellenistic years, owed mainly to its rich crops. Prosperity is also reflected in the increased building activities towards the end of the 2^nd century BC, when the first imposing public buildings were made.¹⁸ Sagalassos was then one of the most powerful cities of Pisidia and followed the Greek institutions, political system and way of living.¹⁹ Despite the continuous succession of powers governing the region, the city was able to considerably maintain its autonomy as regards the management of interior matters until the late imperial period, which proves that the inhabitants, apart from their high morale, had the means to carry their points to the rulers. While the Attalid domination left the city almost unharmed as regards interior matters, it deeply affected Sagalassos in matters of culture, as clearly proven in most aspects of artistic creation. The centre for all this cultural activity must have been the neighbouring Attaleia, founded by Attalus II, probably acting at the same time as the centre for the spread of the civilisation of Pergamon over the entire Pisidia.²⁰

In the years that followed the bequest of the kingdom of Pergamon to Rome in 133 BC the picture is unclear, since the newly formed province of Asia did not include Pisidia. According to one version, the region came under the jurisdiction of Ariarathes V of Cappadocia, while it is equally possible that it regained its independence. It is likely that a small part of Pisidia was briefly included in the province of Cilicia.²¹ In 39 BC Marc Antony ceded a part of the province and Pisidia to Polemon I. Shortly later, the reorganisation of Asia by Augustus resulted in the considerable expansion of Galatia. Thus, King Amyntas briefly took control of Pisidia, while after he died in 25 BC his kingdom was incorporated into the Roman province of Galatia. It was the start of Roman domination in Sagalassos. It is worth mentioning that despite its engagement in that political turmoil, the city continued to prosper throughout the 1^st century BC and, what is more, it was beautified with splendid public buildings. The last time the city appears before the Roman era is in a list of Pisidian cities compiled by the geographer Artemidorus of Ephesus, dating from about 100 BC and preserved by Strabo in the years of Augustus.²² In the following years the territory of Galatia varied in size.²³ Sagalassos was finally incorporated into the double province of Lycia-Pamphylia maintaining this status until the late 3^rd century AD.

The city had its heyday in the imperial period. Sagalassos was then the most powerful city of the region, the ‘First in Pisidia’, according to inscriptions²⁴ and prospered in every area of activity. Peace and political stability created the ideal basis for a tremendous economic development. In addition, the proximity of the city to one of the most important commercial routes of the time, leading from Pamphylia to Apamea of Phrygia, was sharply against the former rival city of Selge, which, although a close competitor so far, remained a runner-up in every aspect. A temporary and slight decline in building activity towards the late 1^st century AD was probably owed to earthquakes or other natural disasters. In the 2^nd century AD the city was beautified again with imposing buildings, while the great number of coins minted proves the city’s prosperity. Sagalassos does not seem to have been directly affected by the Gothic raids of 255-277 AD and the war between the Romans and Septimia Zenobia (Aramaic Znwbyā Bat Zabbai, queen of the Roman colony of Palmyra, in present-day Syria, from 267 or 268 to 272 AD) in 270 AD. On the contrary, those last years the city’s economy also benefited from corn trade conducted with Syria. Decline started in the early 5th century AD because of the Isaurian threat, a major factor of destabilisation in the following years, as the famous Pax Romana was a thing of the past. At the turn of the next century a devastating earthquake caused terrible disasters, but the inhabitants managed to partly rebuild the city. The Arabic raids in the mid-7^th century AD as well as a new earthquake gave Sagalassos the final blow and the city never managed to recover again.²⁵ In recent years the city was forgotten until it was ‘discovered’ again in the 17^th century by the French rambler Paul Lucas, who arrived in the region by chance.²⁶ From then on, lots of ramblers gave descriptions and made drawings of the impressive remains of Sagalassos.²⁷ The most detailed study was carried out between 1884-1885 by the Polish count Karol Lanckoronski, in the framework of his monumental work on the ancient cities of Pisidia and their monuments.²⁸ Partial and small-scale archaeological research followed, intensified after 1986 with the collaboration of both British and Belgian archaeologists. An ambitious inter-scientific project started in 1990 under the auspices of the University of Leuven, which has brought to light multiple aspects of the unknown past of the city so far.²⁹

4. City Plan and Architecture

The building remains of Sagalassos are particularly extensive and impressive, since several public buildings have been preserved in good condition.³⁰ The city is planned according to the Hellenistic building model, used in the cities of Pisidia in the Hellenistic years, including a fortification wall, Agora, Bouleuterion, temples and commercial zones.³¹ Access was from north, south and east. The northern entrance, above a steep ravine, was inaccessible. The eastern gate was very important for the city, since here was the road leading to the aqueducts in the east.³² The cemeteries with tomb monuments of different morphological types were on the city’s outskirts to the northwest, south and west. Distinctive features are the ossuaries, typical Hellenistic constructions, the Roman sarcophagi, manufactured in local workshops as well as the vaulted Christian tombs in catacombs, dating from late antiquity.

The wall of Sagalassos was built in the Hellenistic years in order to further strengthen the natural fortification of the city. It should be noted that the peace of the imperial years made the wall useless and, as a result, it was pulled down. When the city needed to be fortified again in late antiquity, a new defensive enclosure was built near the eastern entrance, with previously used building material.

The residential centre of the Hellenistic city was on the highest terrace, the so-called ‘upper city’. Public life was centred around the agora of the 2^nd century BC. Its trapezoid shape is reminiscent of the Agora of the neighbouring Cremna, while there are influences of the architectural tradition of Pergamon as well.³³ In the years of Augustus (31 BC -14 AD) the Agora was beautified with statues of local benefactors mounted on 10-metre columns. Later on, the Agora was partially girded with archways and embellished with two imposing arches.³⁴ The one of them was originally built in honour of Caligula (37-41 AD), while after he was assassinated in 41 AD, it was dedicated to his successor Claudius (41-54 AD).³⁵ In the southeastern corner of the upper Agora there was the Macellum or food market, built in the years of Emperor Commodus (180-192 AD).³⁶

One of the most imposing monuments of the upper city was the distyle in antis Doric temple to the northwest of the Agora. It was inside a sacred precinct and access was by means of monumental stairs in the south. Opinions differ on the period it was made, as some researchers include it in the architectural tradition of Pergamon, while others date it back to the early imperial years. The temple was probably dedicated to the eastern god Kakasbos, probably identified with Zeus or Herakles, while its central position proves the important role it played in religious life. The remains of the Bouleuterion, built towards the late 2^nd century BC, are between the Doric temple and the Agora. The two-storey building –now almost in ruins– was built on a terrace, its western side partly carved on a rock, while in the north there was a small yard.³⁷ The Bouleuterion of Sagalassos is quite similar to the Ecclesiasterion of Priene, with an almost square ground plan and parallel rows of stone seats on the three sides. On the eastern wall facing the Agora there were high quality reliefs of almost natural size, depicting Athena beside a defeated warrior and Ares with a captive woman.³⁸

To the northwest of the Agora there was the so-called Heroon, the first large-scale public building made in the city. It dates back to the third quarter of the 2^nd century BC and was a distyle in antis Corinthian small temple with podium, rising to a total height of 15.3 metres.³⁹ Its architecture is reminiscent of the famous Lycian Nereid Monument, today in the British Museum. In the lower part of the eastern, southern and western facade there was a relief frieze depicting female dancers (or Muses) in ¾ of the natural size.⁴⁰ The Heroon housed a statue, probably up to 4 metres high. The use of the monument remains unknown, as no inscriptions associated with it were found in the excavations. Perhaps it was a cenotaph or an honorary monument for some foreign sovereign or eminent citizen. Around 400 AD the Heroon was incorporated into the new defensive wall of the city.⁴¹

The Roman theatre, the most imposing and best preserved monument of Sagalassos was to the east of the Agora. Built at an altitude of 1574 metres on a sloping plane, its southwest foundation comprised a complicated system of vaulted corridors. The architect of the theatre designed a skene with only one floor, aiming to offer the audience an exceptional view of the scenery, where Alexander’s Hill dominated.⁴² The remains of the Doric fountain, partly carved on a slope and built in the 1^st century BC, are between the Agora and the theatre. The monument faced southeast and comprised three Doric archways enclosing a yard.⁴³ The Library of Neon was built to the north of the fountain in the imperial years (shortly after 120 AD), being quite similar to the famous Library of Celsus in Ephesus.⁴⁴ The quarter of the potters, which played a very important role in the city’s life throughout antiquity, extended to the east.⁴⁵ Around 115 to 125 AD a small temple, probably dedicated to god Dionysus, was built in the northwestern corner of the city, while its architecture shares common features with the Temple of Hadrian in Ephesus.

In the imperial years the city expanded to the lower terraces, where new splendid public buildings were built. In the years of Augustus or a little later, in Tiberius’ years (14-37 AD), the Agora of the lower city –probably formed already from the late Hellenistic years– was adorned with an imposing gate in the southwest, preserved in very bad condition. It had two parts and was 13 m wide, adorned with Corinthian columns and a frieze with relief decoration. About the same period, an Ionic peripteral temple (with 6Χ11 columns), dedicated to Apollo Clarius, was built on the western hill, after the latter was formed with analemmatic walls. The temple was inside a sacred precinct of a mixed Doric and Ionic architectural style. In Hadrian’s years the temple was reconstructed from marble, as it had suffered extensive damages because of an earthquake, and was once again dedicated to Apollo Clarius and the emperors.⁴⁶ The temple was possibly dedicated to the emperors because it was the first time the city had been awarded the honorary title of Neokoros. In the early Byzantine years, the temple was transformed into a Christian basilica. To the north of the Agora, in the lower city, was the odeum of the late 1^st or the early 2^nd century AD, shaped like a semicircular indoor theatre. The building may have had a seating capacity of up to 3,000, while today it is in very bad condition. In the following years it was extensively restored, while in Hadrian’s years (117-138 AD) a nymphaeum was built next to the theatre.⁴⁷ It had two floors on the front side and was adorned with elaborate reliefs depicting riverine gods and nymphs.⁴⁸ The imposing cluster of the baths of the 2^nd century AD, one of the largest in southern Asia Minor, was to the east of the Agora.⁴⁹ Some of its sides had three floors, while the southwestern side followed the morphology of the terrain, aiming at the longest possible exposure to the sun, the source of light and heat. In later years, the eastern side was transformed into a vaulted gymnasium.

One of the most imposing public buildings dominating the centre of the lower city was the Corinthian peripteral temple, built on a terrace and surrounded by a huge sacred precinct with archways.⁵⁰ The temple had a long pronaos with a richly decorated door and a small cella. The exceptional relief decoration of its architectural features reflects the craftsmanship of local stone dressers and safely dates the temple back to Hadrian’s years. The temple was completed in the years of Antoninus Pius (138-161 AD), to whom it was dedicated, being the main place of imperial worship in the city from then on.