1. Reasons for the Persecutions

From the very beginning Christianity appeared as an individual religion in the Roman Empire, asking for the privilege of exclusiveness from its adherents. While until then one could follow several cults, the strict monotheism of Christianity eliminated this possibility and therefore socially isolated the faithful, who were not allowed to participate even in celebrations held in their cities as long as sacrifices and pagan rituals were included. The introvercy of the early Christian communities made them hateful to the rest of the world and, consequently, all kinds of accusations for orgiastic rituals, human sacrifices and cannibalism as well as for desire for power were made against them. As a result of those accusations, the emperors of the first two centuries, particularly Nero (54-68) and Domitian (81-96), often persecuted the Christians.

However, thepressingdefenseneedsoftheempireduringthe 3^rdcenturyAD, incombination with the financial crisis, caused the interest in religious matters to wane and brought a relevant quietness for Christians, who could thence practice their religious duties undisturbed and to proselytize an increasing number of people, with the promise of eternal life and salvation.

Apart from a very short period, during the reign of Decius (249-251), when the Christian communities were once again viciously attacked, the 3rd century may be described as the century when Christianity and ecclesiastical hierarchy were established and stabilised, while the first autonomous ecclesiastical buildings were built in prominent positions of big cities such as Nicomedia. The peace that the Christian Church enjoyed was partially due to conscious efforts made by some of its top-ranking members, such as the Alexandrian apologist Origen, to include in their teaching fundamental principles of classical education so that they could later be incorporated into the classical world, characterized by a bourgeois culture particularly of the middle classes.¹

2. The Religious Policy of the 3rd c. Emperors

The religious policy of the 3rd c. emperors, particularly Valerian (253-260) and Gallienus (253-268), tended to monotheism, with the “Unconquered Sun” (Sol Invictus) being the supreme god honoured.² However, Diocletian was more traditional. Although he intended to restore the prestige of the old Roman and Greek pantheon, when he ascended to the throne (284) the situation was more crucial than ever. He reorganised and reinforced the army and the economy, while he avoided adopting antichristian measures because he considered they would harm the cohesion of the empire, for Christianity had penetrated upper social classes, even at the level of state and military officials.

3. Diocletian’s Αntichristian Measures

Diocletian took the first measures against Christianity in 297. They were aimed against those officials, who, contrary to established practices, refused to sacrifice to the gods and the emperor.³ Christian writers, particularly Lactantius, who knew the emperor personally and was invited by him to teach Latin in Nicomedia, talks about removing Christians from crucial positions of the army and the administration. The emperor wanted to implement his reforms in an integrated state hierarchy, where the traditional religion would act as the link. Nobody would be permitted to disrupt such a system. Ηowever, the edict was issued in the winter of 297 on the occasion of a difficult turn in the eastern campaign, when Diocletian and his caesar, Galerius, asked for an oracle by sacrificing to the gods in Antioch of Syria. But the seers could not read the guts of the sacrificed animals and believed that some Christians were crossing themselves in their houses at that moment.⁴

Τhe edict through which all officials without exception were ordered to sacrifice to the gods and the emperor worried the Christians of the empire, who felt undermined; but the edict was not harshly implemented. Although the measures were particularly strict in some provinces, in others they were not even introduced, while known Christians, such as Gorgonios, Dorotheos and Peter were still among the emperor’s intimates.⁵ Diocletian himself must have been very doubtful about the pertinence of the measures he had proposed and therefore he became less strict.

4. Galerius’ 302 Edict and Onset of the Persecution

The persecution would have been avoided if Galerius, Diocletian’s caesar, had not intervened. According to Lactantius, Galerius was a rude man with bestial strength, attached to the rituals of the pagan worship rather than to its religious essence. He was influenced by seers and conservatives.⁶ Galerius issued the first edict against Christians on the celebration of the Terminalia at 303 (February 23). The edict ordered that all sacred books should be burnt and churches should be demolished, while the Christian officials of the cities or the central administration would be accused of dishonesty. They would also be mortified and punished without enjoying the right of legal protection. Τhe measures aimed mainly at abolishing the institution of the Church, which was steadily becoming more powerful due to Christian officials. However, no executions were carried out.

Shortly thereafter the persecution entered its bloody phase, when the Christians of Nicomedia were accused of trying to set Diocletian’s palace on fire. The emperor was furious and executed all the representatives of the Church by summary procedures, while he also compelled his servants, wife and daughter to sacrifice to the gods.

The persecutions continued after Diocletian and Maxentius abdicated the throne in 305. Another three edicts were issued, renouncing Christianity and accusing the Christians as instigators of actions against the empire. Maximinus, who was proclaimed Galerius’ caesar in 306, issued a fifth edict through which the Christians of his area of jurisdiction were sentenced to amputation or forced labour in case they refused to sacrifice to the gods.

5. End of the Persecutions

The persecutions ended in 311 when Galerius, suffering from a disease, thought the God of Christians had punished him, issued a new edict through which he retracted all previous edicts. This edict is known as the Edict of Sardica or Nicomedia.⁷ It allowed Christians to discharge their religious duties without restraint on condition that they would not act against the empire. In return, the sick emperor asked their intervention with their God in order to be redeemed from his torture. However, Maximinus did not obey Galerius’ edict and continued persecuting Christians by inventing accusations against them, as he suspected them of subverting the regime. The persecutions stopped permanently when the Edict of Milan was issued by Constantine and Licinius in 313.