1. Foundation-Sources

Montanism or the ‘Cataphrygian’ heresy or heresy of Pepuza was a Christian expression formed in the mid-2nd century in Phrygia, which spread to both the rest of Asia Minor and the entire Roman territory, particularly to Rome and North Africa.¹ The main source of information about the origin and principles of Montanism is Εusebios, whose sources, in turn, were an unknown priest of the 2nd c., Miltiades of Philadelphia, the bishop of Hierapolis, Claudius Αpollinarius, and Meliton of Sardis. All four sources date from the late 2nd c. and are against Montanism. A little subsequent, but still against the heresy, are also some other references to Eusebios, such as Hippolytus, who in the ‘Comments on Daniel’ tried to confute the heresy, Canon Muratori and the letter of the Christian communities of Vienna and Lyon. More detailed information is provided by a follower of the heresy, the poet and theologian of the early 3rd c., Tertullian. Apart from literary sources, the structure of the heresy of Montanism is also documented by epigraphic evidence, mainly from the region of Phrygia.²

The heresy was named after Montanus, a former priest of Cybele and subsequent Christian, who settled in the town of Ardabau on the border of Mysia-Phrygia in 156.³ He there started to act the Paraclete and preached that he made the ‘New Prophecy’ and that the Holy Spirit expressed itself through him when he was in ecstasy.⁴ He was soon followed by two prophetesses, Priscilla (or Prisca) and Maximilla, who gave oracles when in ecstasy. The prophetic-ecstatic character of the heresy had a great impact on Phrygia, mainly among the semi-agricultural alpine populations. Besides, there was already a tradition of divergent religious beliefs and a tendency towards non-personified deities in the area even within the framework of pagan cults.⁵

2. Doctrine

The doctrine promoted by Montanus was much stricter than that of the official church. It did not recognise repentance, did not forgive sins and urged its followers to preach their belief even under the threat of martyrdom.⁶ What is more, the Montanists boasted about the big number of their martyrs.⁷ It seems that Montanus’ preaching exerted an attraction towards death, which was obviously considered salvation, as proven by the fact that the two prophetesses killed themselves.

The tendency of Montanists to openly preach their faith in a provocative way was one of the reasons why researchers believe that numerous funerary inscriptions of the 3rd c. found in Phrygia, particularly in the area Altıntaş of the upper valley of Tembris, where the punch-line "Christians for Christians' appears, are attributed to followers of the heresy. The representations framing the inscriptions provide information about the early symbols of Montanism, probably borrowed from the official Christian iconography of the time. The most common motifs were the initials of Jesus Christ, the symbol of communion, framed by laurel and other floral decorations.⁸ Another Montanistic inscription was that found in Dorylaeum, dating from 515 AD. It belongs to a Montanistic priest described as ‘mystic and communicant’.⁹ The ‘communicant’ was the clerical title that differentiated Montanists from the rest of Christians. According to the limited relevant information provided about their cult, their meetings were characterised by excitement and unstrained expression of their religious feelings, while the fact that the clergy included women, even as bishops, was particularly interesting.

3. Influences

The sect was soon spread to other regions of Asia Minor, Ankyra, Otrus of Phrygia, Antioch and the coasts of the Black Sea. By 200 AD it was also spread to other regions of the empire, such as Lyon, North Africa, and even Rome. It should be noted that the most important apologist of Montanism was Tertullian from Carthage. Apart from its wide geographical spread, Montanism lasted a long time. It seems that its heyday was the third century, particularly its middle years. It was then that Pepuza of Phrygia, a small village with a fanatical community of Montanists, became the centre of the heresy.

The Montanists, just like the rest of the Christians, suffered systematic persecutions during the 3rd century. Apart from that, they were also condemned by the Church, which in the 3rd century systematically tried to convert Montanistic communities and, thus, prove the delusion of Montanus, who, according to Church, was provoked by Satan.

Despite the persecutions, Montanism continued to inspire both contemporary and subsequent Christian communities. It remained known as Cataphrygian heresy, while elements of its teaching may be found in Donatism, a heresy of the late 3rd c. in North Africa. It seems that towards the late 4th century there was a revival of Montanism as, according to Εpiphanius, there were several communities, particularly in Asia Minor, while Didymus the Blind tried hard to argue against and confute the new paraclete.¹⁰ The doctrine of Montanism must have been adopted even in medieval years, at least until the 11th c., according to Niketas Choniates, thus inspiring other heresies mainly of the West, such as the Cathars.